We've looked at some ways of viewing text, so now we'll address how to write it.
Table of Contents |
---|
echo - the bash print function
Other programming languages usually supply a print statement or function that can direct text to a file or to standard output.
...
Code Block | ||
---|---|---|
| ||
echo hello # displays "hello" on the next terminal line, then the prompt on a new line echo -n hello # displays "hello" on the next terminal line followed by the prompt (no newline) |
Exercise 3-1
What is the difference in character count when you echo hello with and without the -n option?
...
The reason for this difference is that by default, echo actually reads then outputs all the characters on the line, including the trailing linefeed. To understand this better, and to understand what is meant by "interpretation of backslash escapes", we need to first look at how the shell evaluates other metacharacters, and how that is affected by quoting in the shell.
Environment variables
Environment variables are just like variables in a programming language (in fact bash is a complete programming language): they are "names" that hold a value assigned to them. As with all programming language variables, they have two operations:
...
There are a number of pre-defined environment variables in the shell, such as USER (your account name) and PATH (more on PATH later). The env command will list them along with their values.
Exercise 3-2
Output a string that includes your account name and your Unix group name using environment variables.
...
Expand | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ||||||||||
Examining the env output we find that the variable MY_GROUP contains our Unix group.
|
Quoting in the shell
When the shell processes a command line, it first parses the text into tokens ("words"), which are groups of characters separated by whitespace (one or more space characters). Quoting affects how this parsing happens, including how metacharacters are treated and how text is grouped.
...
- single quoting (e.g. 'some text') – this serves two purposes
- it groups together all text inside the quotes into a single token
- it tells the shell not to "look inside" the quotes to perform any evaluation
- all metacharacters inside the single quotes are ignored
- in particular, any environment variables in single-quoted text are not evaluated
- double quoting (e.g. "some text") – also serves two purposes
- it groups together all text inside the quotes into a single token
- it allows environment variable evaluation, but inhibits some metacharcters
- e.g. asterisk ( * ) pathname globbing (more on globbing later...)
- and some other metacharacters
- double quoting also preserves any special characters in the text
- e.g. newlines (\n) or Tabs (\t)
- backtick quoting (e.g. `date`)
- evaluates the expression inside the backtick marks ( ` )
- the standard output of the expression replaces the text inside the backtick marks ( ` )
Note that the quote characters themselves ( ' " ` ) are metacharacters that tell the shell to "start a quoting process" then "end a quoting process" when the matching quote is found. Since they are part of the processing, the enclosing quotes are not included in the output.
Let's look at examples of these.
Single and double quotes
...
Let's look at examples of these.
Single and double quotes
The first rule of quoting is: always enclose a command argument in quotes if it contains spaces so that the command sees the quoted text as one item.
To see more on how quoting affects text grouping, we'll use quotes to define some multi-word environment variables.
...
Code Block | ||
---|---|---|
| ||
FOO="Hello world!" echo "The value of variable 'FOO' is \"$FOO\"" # Escape the double quotes inside double quotes echo "The value of variable 'FOO' is "' "'$FOO'"' # Single-quoted text after double-quoted text echo 'The value of variable 'FOO' is "$FOO"' # Two single-quoted stringstext along with unquotedafter double-quoted text FOO |
Tip |
---|
If you see the greater than ( > ) character after pressing Enter, it can mean that your quotes are not paired, and the shell is waiting for more input to contain the missing quote of the pair (either single or double). Just use Ctrl-c to get back to the prompt. |
Note that the quote characters themselves ( ' " ` ) are metacharacters that tell the shell to "start a quoting process" then "end a quoting process" when the matching quote is found. Since they are part of the processing, the enclosing quotes are not included in the output.
Exercise 3-3
How would you output this text: The backslash character \ is used for escaping
Expand | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||
A couple of possibilities:
|
Multi-line text
If you want to output multi-line text, you can:
- Start the text with a single or double quote
- press Enter when you want to start a new line
- keep entering text and Enter
- until you're satisfied
- enter the matching single or double quote then Enter
- Use echo -e to "enable interpretation of backslash escapes"
- Now we know what that means!
- Note that backslash escapes include some that represent non-printable characters
- e.g. newline/linefeed ( \n ), and tab ( \t )
Exercise 3-4
How would you output this text:
...
Expand | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||
A couple of possibilities:
|
Backtick evaluation quoting
backtick ( ` ) evaluation quoting is one of the underappreciated wonders of Unix.
The shell:
- evaluates the expression/command inside the backtick marks ( ` )
- the standard output of the expression replaces the text inside the backtick marks ( ` )
...
Code Block | ||
---|---|---|
| ||
date # Calling the date command just displays date/time information echo date # Here "date" is treated as a literal word, and written to output echo `date` # The date command is evaluated and its output replaces the command information echo date # Here "date" is treated as a literal word, and written to output echo `date` # The date command is evaluated and its output replaces the command # Assign a string including today's date to variable "today" today="Today is: `date`"; echo $today |
The slightly odd syntax $(<some command>), is equivalent to `<some command>`, and can be easier to read when the command to be evaluated is complex.
Code Block | ||
---|---|---|
| ||
echo "Today is: `date`"
echo "Today is $(date)"
|
Exercise 3-5
How would you output this text using a command to calculate the number of lines: The haiku.txt file has 11 lines
...
Expand | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||
Notice that the backticked expression can be complex! |
Redirection
So far text we've been working with has been output to standard output, which I keep reminding you is mapped to your Terminal. But you can redirect text elsewhere.
...
You can also specify the tee -a option to append the input text to the file you specify.-a option to append the input text to the file you specify.
Note that the > redirection metacharacter sends its output to a file, not to another program's standard input stream as with the | pipe metacharacter. (There are some cases where redirection involves something other than a file, but that's a topic for the Advanced Bash scripting class.)
The standard error stream
So what's this standard error stream? Recall our discussion of Command input errors? Well, error information is written to standard error, not to standard output!
It is easy to not notice the difference between standard output and standard error when you're in an interactive Terminal session – because both outputs are sent to the Terminal. But they are separate streams, with different meanings.
When executing commands you will want to manipulate standard output and standard error appropriately – especially for 3rd party programs.
...
Code Block | ||
---|---|---|
| ||
ls haiku.txt xxx.txt 1> stdoutout.txt 2>stderr2>err.txt cat stdoutout.txt # Displays "haiku.txt" cat stderrerr.txt # Displays "ls: cannot access 'xxx.txt': No such file or directory" |
...
One final redirection trick. There is a special Linux file called /dev/null that serves as a "global trash can". That is – it just throws away anything you write to it. So you can direct standard output and/or standard error to /dev/null to ignore it completely.
Exercise 3-6
Show the difference between standard output and standard error by redirecting standard error to /dev/null.
...
Expand | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||
This will only display "ls: cannot access 'xxx.txt': No such file or directory"
|
Editing text
We've now covered viewing existing file text and writing new text to a file. But what if you want to edit/change text in an existing file?
...
- Use a command-line program that lets you enter/edit text in a Terminal window (e.g. nano, vi/vim, emacs)
- nano is extremely simple and is a good choice as a first local text editor
- warning: nano has a tendency to break long single lines into multiple lines
- vi and emacs are extremely powerful but also quite complex
- emacs reference sheet: https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/refcards/pdf/refcard.pdf
- vi reference sheet: http://www.atmos.albany.edu/daes/atmclasses/atm350/vi_cheat_sheet.pdf
- nano is extremely simple and is a good choice as a first local text editor
- Use a text editor or IDE (Integrated Development Environment) program that runs on your local computer but has an SFTP (secure FTP) interface that lets you connect to a remote computer
- E.g.,Komodo IDE (Windows & Mac) or Notepad++ (Windows). Both are no-cost.
- Once you connect to the remote host, you can navigate its directory structure and edit files.
- When you open a file, its contents are brought over the network into the text editor's edit window, then saved back when you save the file.
- E.g.,Komodo IDE (Windows & Mac) or Notepad++ (Windows). Both are no-cost.
- Use software or protocols that allow you to "mount" remote server directories
- Once mounted, the remote storage appears as a local volume/drive.
- Then, you can use any text editor or IDE on your local computer to open/edit/save remote files.
- Software programs that can mount remote data include ExpanDrive for Windows or Mac (costs $$, but has a free trial), TextWrangler for Mac.
- Remote file system protocols include Samba (Windows, Mac) and NFS (Linux)
- Once mounted, the remote storage appears as a local volume/drive.
Knowing the basics of at least one Linux command-line text editor is useful for creating/editing small files, and we'll explore nano in this class. For editing larger files, you may find options #2 or #3 more useful.
nano
nano is a very simple editor available on most Linux systems. If you are able to ssh into a remote system, you can use nano there.
...
Navigation and operations in nano are similar to those we discussed in Command line editing.
You can just type in text, and navigate around using arrow keys (up/down/left/right). A couple of other navigation shortcuts:
- Ctrl-a - go to start of line
- Ctrl-e - go to end of line
- Ctrl-v - go forward one page
- Arrow keys are also modified by Ctrl- (Windows) or Option- (Mac)
- Ctrl-right-arrow (Windows) or Option-right-arrow (Mac) will skip by "word" forward
- Ctrl-left-arrow (Windows) or Option-left-arrow (Mac) will skip by "word" backward
...
These and other important nano operations are displayed in a menu at the bottom of the Terminal window. Note that the ^ character means Ctrl- in this menu.
Edit your login script
Whenever you login to a remote server, a login script located in your Home directory is executed. This file, usually your ~/.profile and/or ~/.bashrc file, has expressions that customize your shell environment. These customizations are temporary – they are in effect only during your login sessions, which is why they have to be re-established every time you login.
On our system, ~/.profile file is your login script. Use more ~/.profile to look at it.
Exercise 3-7
Use nano to remove the pound sign ( # ) comment character from one of the two lines starting with #export LS_COLORS
...